After the Time of Troubles, Russia strengthened its statehood and military forces. Under Tsars Mikhail and Alexei Romanov, autocracy became more consolidated, and an active foreign policy was launched — the return of Smolensk and Ukraine, wars with Sweden and the Ottoman Empire, exploration of Siberia and the Far East, and the beginning of relations with China.
After overcoming the devastation of the Time of Troubles, Russia by the mid-17th century was able to restore its strength and reassert its position as a major European regional power. During the reign of Mikhail Fyodorovich (1613–1645), intensive development of the armed forces began, adopting advanced European practices (the so-called “new-model regiments”). Under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1645–1676), the state became rigidly centralized, and autocratic power was firmly strengthened.
These two factors made it possible — albeit with varying success — to pursue an active foreign policy and territorial expansion in three strategic directions:
Western — toward the western Russian lands and the Baltic;
Southern — toward the southern Russian lands (Ukraine), the Azov region, the North Caucasus, and Crimea;
Eastern — toward Siberia and the Far East.
The most significant foreign-policy success under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was the recovery from Poland of the Smolensk region and Left-Bank Ukraine, including Kyiv. These gains were secured by the Truce of Andrusovo with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1667) and the “Eternal Peace” treaty (1686). At the same time, Russia’s attempts to regain access to the Baltic Sea from Sweden ended without success.
In the south, the incorporation of Left-Bank Ukraine into Russia intensified conflict with the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate. In the course of this struggle, Russia joined the Holy League of European powers during the Great Turkish War (1683–1699), seeking access to the Azov and Black Seas. Thus, Russo-Turkish relations became fully integrated into the broader framework of European politics. Earlier, during its wars with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia had at times concluded tactical alliances with Turkey, but later turned against it in coalition with Poland and Austria.
The eastern direction of foreign policy under the first Romanovs was not the principal one, yet substantial progress was achieved there as well. The 17th century saw continued exploration and incorporation of Siberia; the Amur region became part of Russia, and the gradual settlement of the Far East began. Here, Russian interests came into contact — and conflict — with those of the Qing Empire (China). The Treaty of Nerchinsk, signed in 1689, marked the beginning of formal Russo-Chinese diplomatic relations.
By the late 17th century, Russia’s foreign policy had resulted in significant territorial expansion both westward and eastward. The country had recovered its strength and was preparing to play an active role among Europe’s leading powers. Yet the lack of direct access to the Baltic Sea remained a major obstacle — a challenge that would become the central objective of Peter the Great’s foreign policy.
