Under Emperor Alexander I (1801–1825), after the conclusion of the coalition wars against Napoleonic France (1815), Russia possessed the most formidable army in the world and exerted decisive influence on European politics; autocratic rule remained unshaken. From 1815 Russia became a key participant in the system of the Holy Alliance, designed to counter revolutionary movements in Europe. During the reign of Nicholas I (1825–1855), Russia continued an active southern policy: her borders advanced after victories in the wars with Persia (1826–1828) and Turkey (1828–1829). Yet the revolutionary upheavals of 1848–1849 in Europe brought the final collapse of the Holy Alliance. Growing contradictions with Britain and France over the “Eastern Question” led to the Crimean War (1853–1856), which ended unfavorably for Russia; Austria—traditionally an ally—took an openly anti-Russian position.
During the reign of Alexander II (1855–1881), marked by sweeping domestic reforms, Russia successfully completed the Caucasian War, conquered Central Asia, and restored her prestige in European affairs. Alexander II forged friendly relations with Germany, and victory in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 was perceived as a form of revenge for the Crimean defeat. At the same time, Austria, supported by Germany, increasingly opposed Russian policy in the Balkans; Russo-Austrian rivalries over Bulgaria, Serbia, and Bosnia became a long-term factor of European politics.
Alongside western and southern directions, Russia’s expansion eastward intensified. By the early 1880s, as a result of assertive advances in Central Asia, the empire’s possessions extended to the Tian Shan, the Pamirs, and the northern frontiers of Afghanistan, provoking confrontation with Britain in the “Great Game.” Russia’s international prestige again stood high: rapid growth of the economy and military power following the reforms ensured success in foreign policy. The reign of Alexander III (1881–1894) was the most stable period of Russian foreign relations in the nineteenth century. The empire focused on strengthening internal economic integration, developing Siberia and the Far East, and maintaining the European balance of power. The cornerstone of this policy became the Franco-Russian Military Alliance (1893), aimed at restraining the growing might and ambitions of unified Germany.
The last Russian emperor, Nicholas II (1894–1917), sought to continue his father’s cautious course, yet his reign turned into an era of profound upheavals. Attempting to extend Russian influence in northern China and Korea, he entered into conflict with Japan, resulting in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), which ended in defeat. The domestic crisis of 1905 was eventually overcome, and the economy continued to develop amid rapid population growth (by 1914 it exceeded 170 million). The Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 normalized relations with Britain, completing the formation of the Triple Entente—an alliance of Russia, France, and Britain to counter Germany and Austria-Hungary. However, in 1914 the July Crisis brought relations between Russia and the Central Powers to the breaking point, compelling Russia to enter the First World War.
