The emergence and evolution of the prikazy as central government institutions was a complex and multifaceted process. The rise of the prikaz system coincided with the formation of a unified centralized state. Although the first prikazy were formally established only by the mid-16th century, the foundations of the system were laid in the second half of the 15th century. The origins of the earliest prikazy remain a subject of scholarly debate. Before the Petrine reforms, the formation of the system of state administration was evolutionary: institutions arose as needed, without a predetermined plan, which complicates the study of their genesis.
At the core of the emerging administrative system were two key departments: the Kazna (Treasury Prikaz) and the Dvorets (Prikaz of the Great Palace).
Until the end of the 15th century, the basis of state administration remained the grand-princely household, which concentrated a variety of functions. The prince’s household apparatus performed both personal and governmental administrative duties. Over time, these tasks became more complex and permanent, rather than ad hoc, leading to increasing specialization. It is impossible to pinpoint precisely when, as V.O. Kliuchevsky put it, governance shifted “from administration by individuals to administration by institutions.”
Scholars differ in their views on which of the two departments played the decisive role. Yu.G. Alekseev and A.A. Zimin argued that the center of administrative power was the grand-princely chancellery (Kazna), where functions gradually differentiated, laying the foundation for future prikazy. A.K. Leontyev, by contrast, traced the evolution of the prikazy from palace departments, emphasizing the primacy of the Prikaz of the Great Palace — a view also shared by D.V. Liseytsev.
The Kazna was the first known department to emerge from the princely household. The term derives from the Arabic alkhizana (“storehouse”). The kaznachey (treasurer) headed this office — the first known being Ostafii Arakcheev (1445/55–1462). The treasurers were responsible for diplomatic and notarial functions; for instance, Treasurer D.V. Khovrin (1491–1509) was the custodian of the grand-princely seal. The office required high competence, and its holders were usually professional officials — dumnye dvoriane (nobles of the council) or dumnye diaki (senior clerks).
The Great Palace emerged at the same time as the Kazna, in the mid-15th century, from responsibilities related to managing princely lands. The department was headed by the dvoretskii (palace steward), the first known being boyar Mikhail Saburov (1463). The Sudebnik of 1550 ranked both the dvoretskii and kaznachey among the highest state officials, endowed with judicial authority. The position of dvoretskii ranked above that of kaznachey. The dvoretskii administered the prince’s estates and, unlike the treasurer, was typically chosen from the titled aristocracy.
Transformation of Offices into Institutions and Typology of Early Prikazy
A general trend toward the separation of offices from the monarch’s household can be clearly observed in the development of Russian state institutions. Offices such as dvoretskii, koniushii (master of the horse), kaznachey, and pechatnik (keeper of the seal) gradually assumed governmental character, and apparatuses were formed around them, eventually becoming central state institutions.
Because prikazy emerged at different times and initially lacked clearly defined spheres of competence, their classification is complex. Early prikazy (late 15th – first half of the 16th century) can be roughly categorized according to their functions and organizational principles:
Special (Palace): Kazenny (“Kazna,” 1445), Prikaz of the Great Palace (“Dvorets,” 1463), Koniushennyi (1493), Postelnyi (1495), Oruzheinyi (1508)
General (Territorial): Novgorodskii (1491), Tverskoi (1510), Nizhegorodskii (1519), Ryazanskii (1525)
Specialized (Functional): Pechatnyi (1504), Chelobitnyi (1549), Posolsky (1549), Yamskoy (1550)
Sectoral (Departmental): Pomestnyi (1523), Razriadnyi (1534), Razboinyi (1539)
Prikazy Originating from the “Palace” (Palace and Territorial)
From the Dvorets emerged the Koniushennyi, Postelnyi, and Oruzheinyi prikazy, formed around traditional court offices (master of the horse, chamberlain, master of arms). Thus, palace services became prototypes of state institutions.
The Dvorets also served as a model for territorial prikazy. As the state expanded, the administrative experience of the grand-princely household was transferred to newly annexed territories, where regional “palaces,” such as the Novgorod (est. 1491), Tver, and Ryazan offices, were established.
Prikazy Associated with the “Kazna” (Functional and Sectoral)
Several specialized prikazy grew out of the Kazna, which likely served as the personal administrative apparatus of the ruler:
Pechatnyi Prikaz (1504): Formed around the office of the pechatnik, responsible for the state seal. It performed notarial functions, preparing and registering documents. Initially, the pechatnik worked within the Treasury, certifying documents.
Posolsky Prikaz (1549): Evolved from the treasury apparatus, which by the late 15th century handled foreign affairs. Its close ties to the Kazna were due to the need to register international documents and manage the significant expenses of diplomacy.
Yamskoy Prikaz (1550): Originated from the Yamskoy Department, initially part of the Treasury, overseeing the transportation of couriers and officials.
Chelobitnyi Prikaz (1549): Served as the tsar’s personal chancellery, receiving petitions for preliminary review. If viewed as the grand-princely chancellery, its roots lie in the Kazna.
Razriadnyi Prikaz (1534): Managed military service, recruitment, and supply, responsible for the state’s defense. It formed from both the Treasury and Palace departments. The diplomatic background of its early heads reflects its connection to the Kazna.
Pomestnyi Prikaz (c. 1523): Oversaw land grants and developed from services managing service landholding within the Treasury and Great Palace departments.
A Prikaz with a Unique Origin
The Razboinyi Prikaz (1539) was an exception, as it was not initially linked to either the Dvorets or the Kazna. It began as a special commission under the Boyar Duma tasked with reporting brigandage. During the gubnaya reform, it became an independent body supervising local administrations.
The services that arose within the Prikaz of the Great Palace and the Treasury Prikaz provided the foundation on which the Russian prikaz system was built. The analysis of the functions and specialization of the first prikaz heads reveals a consistent connection between early prikazy and the departments of the Palace and Treasury.
The origins of the early prikazy depended on their sphere of competence:
Palace and territorial prikazy primarily derived from the Prikaz of the Great Palace.
Functionally specialized prikazy originated from the Treasury Prikaz.
Sectoral prikazy usually emerged from the shared competences of both the Palace and Treasury.
The difficulty of tracing the transition from medieval offices to new bureaucratic institutions lies in the fact that the state apparatus remained highly personalized for a long time. The development of state administration in Russia during this period reflects a general trend toward the institutional separation of offices from the monarch’s household, similar to processes in Europe, where royal offices were divided into political, administrative, and courtly spheres. In Russia, this was manifested in the shift from governance by individuals to governance by permanent institutions.
